Who owns the land owns everything reaching to the heavens and down to the centre of the earth Essay Example

Who owns the land owns everything reaching to the heavens and down to the centre of the earth Paper This report will look into how far the Latin maxim cuis est solum eius est usque ad coelum et ad inferos or he who owns the land owns everything reaching to the heavens and down to the centre of the earth still holds true today. Gray and Gray (2009) state that the Latin maxim traces back to medieval times when its meaning held true. However in modern property law, there is evidence to suggest this does not hold true today. In Bernstein of Leigh (Baron) v Skyviews General Ltd1, it was declared that the rights of the owner are limited to a height that is necessary for the owner to use and enjoy his/her land and above that height the owner of the land has no more right than any other ordinary person of the public. Today there are hot air balloons, aircrafts etc which makes it necessary to balance the rights of airspace between fee simple and the public. The Civil Aviation Act 1982, s 76, also reinforces the concept of how the owners airspace is now restricted to a lower level than it once was. We will write a custom essay sample on Who owns the land owns everything reaching to the heavens and down to the centre of the earth specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on Who owns the land owns everything reaching to the heavens and down to the centre of the earth specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on Who owns the land owns everything reaching to the heavens and down to the centre of the earth specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer Section 76 of the act restricts the fee simples right to sue aircraft in trespass or in nuisance providing the aircraft flies over the property at a reasonable height. The restriction imposed by the Civil Aviation Act 1982, s 76, states no action whatsoever shall prevail providing it the aircraft does not affect the fee simples ordinary use or enjoyment of his/her property. However Gray and Gray (2009) show that aerial trespass can result from low flying aircraft2. Hence the flying height of aircraft should abide by The Civil Aviation Act 1982, s 76. This is supported by Justice Douglas3 who stated, the landowner must have exclusive control of the immediate reaches of the enveloping atmosphere or buildings could not be erected, trees could not be planted and even fences could not be run. This part of the airspace is known as the lower stratum. Whereas in contrast Gray (1991) states that the upper stratum which is beyond the lower stratum is open to exploitation by all. However Gray (1991) gives rise to the example of People v. Cook4 where the Supreme Court of California recognised that the owner of the property in the lower stratum is open to invasion of privacy via inspection from those that may be passing the property in the upper stratum. Gray and Gray (2009) emphasise how the importance of visual trespass has become more important today. For example importance of privacy laws, the emerging law of harassment and ECHR Art 8(i) (the right to respect of his private and family life, his home and his correspondence) have made visual trespass a concern within the area of property law. This shows that although property is thought to be divided into layers. Although the lower layer belongs to the fee simple to a region up to where the owner can reasonably use it and enjoy it. This questions the vulnerability of the owners land to those above it. Hence if the fee simples property is vulnerable to those above it. It raises the question can any of it be said to truly be the owners if its privacy can be so easily compromised. However there is a counter-argument which challenges this as it can be seen that the onus lies with the owner to protect those activities on their property that they wish to protect from those external to their property5. Damages may also need to be paid for trespassing whether or not trespass caused actual damage to the owner of the land6. This case showed that sky cranes trespassing over anothers property for the purposes of construction had to pay compensation even though no direct damage to the fee simple was caused. By using the cranes over the fee simples property, it saved the building contractor $500,000. It was ruled that compensation for the fee simple should result where economic advantage is made by the use of property of another. This can in effect be thought of as it being necessary to rent the property by the party requiring use. Although no direct damage is caused by the trespasser, the fee simple does incur a loss and the third party benefits from the fee simples property; whereas the trespasser profits from the property of the fee simple. While the first maxim cuis est solum eius est usque ad coelum et ad inferos (he who owns the land owns everything reaching to the heavens and down to the centre of the earth), imposes restrictions, another Latin maxim superficies solo cedit (a building becomes part of the ground or solum) has the effect of granting extended rights, this was illustrated in Rogers (Inspector of Taxes) v. Longsdon7 where an artificial heap of waste was held to have become part of the land once trees and grass started growing on it. Thus a house or other structure which cannot be removed without demolition or destruction is presumed to have been intended to form part of the realty as stated by Lord Lloyd of Berwick8. A top floor of a high rise block of flats would also constitute as being land as would a dry stone wall which inheres in the landscape in such a way as to become part of the land9. The Interpretation Act 1978, Sch 1 provides that land includes buildings and other structure, land covered with water, and any estate, interest, easement, servitude or right in or over land. It is not only actual buildings or parts of buildings but also anything that attaches to them in such a way as to become a fixture. There are two types of items fixtures and chattels; Luther (2004) states their distinction is elusive. When looking at whether an item is a fixture or chattel, it is usual for judges to refer to two tests from Blackburn J in Holland v. Hodgson10. The basic principle here is that if an item is attached to the land it is usually a fixture, whereas chattels do not attach to the land but rest on their own weight. The noteworthy point here is that fixtures that are between the land and the heavens do form part of the owners land but chattels may not belong to the owner and if the property was bought from a previous owner, the previous owner has the right to remove any chattels that are still inside the property he has sold even though they currently sit between the earth and the heavens of the new fee simple who has just bought the property. This shows that not everything between the centre of the earth and the heavens forms part of the owners land. It is also of note that chattels do not form part of the land under the tests which is why it does not form part of the land even though the chattel may be on his property but a chattel could belong to the owner of the land just as it could belong to someone else or the previous owner. Regarding subterranean zones, Gray and Gray (2009) state that English law recognises that the owner has the right to at least some of the land under the soil but the Latin maxims declaration that the owner owns everything to depths as far as the centre of the earth is a little misleading in modern property law. Bradbrook (1987 cited by Gray and Gray (2009) states that the land owners rights are unlikely to reach further than 200 metres beneath the surface of the land. Minerals and other inorganic substances that are found beneath the grounds of the owner belong to him11. However there are exceptions regarding coal12 that is yet to be worked on and petroleum13. They belong to the Coal Authority and the Crown respectively. The subterranean forms part of the owners and therefore it is possible to trespass on the owners land in the subterranean zone i. e. underground as far down as is regarded to be the owners land. Trespass may arise via entry to a cave under the owners land14 or by installing a sewer pipe15 under the owners land without authorisation from the owner of the land. Gray and Gray (2009) illustrated that the owner of the land has no absolute title to the water itself flowing through his land through a channel (i. e. river). The owner has the right to reasonably enjoy16 the flow of the water without diminishing17 the flow of the water or its purity to those further down the channel. The owner has the right to fish in the water flowing through his land as far as he can reach by normal casting or spinning18. The owner also has right to the fish once he kills and catches them and they become his absolute property19. Conclusion The Latin maxim of, he who owns the land owns everything reaching to the heavens and down to the centre of the earth does not hold true in modern property law. This notion was perhaps true when it was first realised dating back to the medieval times. However with the evolution of science and technology, much has become possible with items such as aircraft, hot air balloons and other things that would not be possible to use if all property stretched from the centre of the earth to the heavens; every aeroplane or helicopter would be trespassing. Hence as far as to what extent the concept of how far this Latin maxim is still valid in todays society is concerned. It does not hold true. In general, it is thought that the owners property extends to 200 metres below the surface of the ground and that it is unlikely to be higher than 200 metres above roof level. These measurements are not stipulated but it is a rough estimate as it gives the owner the right of space above and below his land from which he can fully benefit from the use his land and use it reasonably for enjoyment. It was also found that the owner of the land owns the land and the buildings upon it, the associated fixtures, minerals and other inorganic substances are said to be the fee simples, the right to enjoy reasonably any water passing through his land with causing the water any damage and the fish within the water become his absolute property. However it was also found that although chattels may be on the owners land he may not own them which may allow them to be recovered by the owner.

Essay on Current Economic EventsEssay Writing Service

Essay on Current Economic EventsEssay Writing Service Essay on Current Economic Events Essay on Current Economic EventsThe growth of the employment rate and car sales discussed in the Newsweek’s article â€Å"Jobs and Car Sales Expected to Show US Economy Rebounding† may be perceived as a positive trend in the US economy but the situation is not as good as it may seem to be because the spending has grown just by 0.2%. Therefore, the optimistic forecast of the US economic growth driven by the growth of the employment rate and rise of the car manufacturing industry, which is one of the mainstream industries of the US, can fail to bring positive effects on the US economy, if the spending remains at the low level, as it is at the moment. In other words, the growth of the US economy cannot be stable, unless the consumption increases that means the growth of spending. The growth of spending is a very important indicator that proves that the economy has started to recover and starts growing.At the same time, some researchers () stand on the ground that the growt h of spending is an essential condition of the development of the economic growth in the course of the recovery of the economy after the economic recession. At this point, it is worth mentioning the fact that the increase of spending is essential for the economic growth because the US economy is oriented on the consumption. The increase of spending stimulates the increase of business activities to meet the existing demand in the market.At this point, it is possible to refer to the traditional view on the supply and demand economy because the development of economy relies heavily on business activities, which in their turn, relies on the development of the supply and demand balance in the market. The high demand in the market stimulates the production of goods and services and business activities. The rise of business activities creates new jobs. At this point, it is possible to refer to the article â€Å"Jobs and Car Sales Expected to Show US Economy Rebounding†, which shows that the growth of jobs and car manufacturing may be an indicator of the possible growth of the production and, therefore, the growth of the employment rate.However, the article also shows another aspect of the economic development – spending. At this point, it is possible to place emphasis on the fact that the economic development cannot progress, if the spending is stumbling (). On the other hand, proponents of the Keynesian theory point out that the economic development requires the government regulation of key macroeconomic factors, including unemployment, inflation and GDP growth. In such a situation, the economic growth in the US can occur due to the employment growth, regulation of inflation and the growth of GDP. In such a context, the growth of the employment rate along with the growth of the production in the US. Nevertheless, the increase of the production and employment rate still do not lead to the increase of the economic growth. In fact, the increase of employm ent and production does not lead to the effective regulation of the inflation, which depends on spending.Thus, the recent growth of the employment rate in the US to the pre-recession peak and the growth of the car production cannot maintain the stable economic growth in the US, unless the US increases spending.

How the art in london effects london economy Essay

How the art in london effects london economy - Essay Example Needless to say, London art drives the economy of London in its own way. Not only are millions of funds generated in art sales every year, the art market also creates scope for new jobs, media spend and regeneration. Approximately 10,000 people are employed in the over 120 art galleries of London alone. Finally various other industries also benefit in the process. Underlined are more details on the London art market and how it drives the economy of the nation. UK is the world market leader when it comes to auction sales by volume, and demonstrates an approximate 30% in the world market share. With London holding an important position in the UK art market, it is needless to add that its various auctions form the art market of UK. The London art market is strongly driven by its Frieze art fair, collector Charles Saatchi and finally the approximately fifty new galleries that have opened up at East End. Three main auction houses mainly operate the art markets of London. Statistics reveal that put together, $353 million worth of art changes hands in these markets, that too in the off season. Christie's conducted their biggest ever sales in the year 2006 and reported sales of approximately 78%. Sotheby profits heavily too. It indicates that the art market of London functions through many micro markets, which revolve around specific artists or genres. Among these micro markets, those of old Masters, Impressionist and Modern Art have seen the gre atest rise. The post war and contemporary market have also shown a rise of over 45% over 2006. As the financial markets represent the economy of the nation, the art market reflects the willingness of the rich to spend disposable amounts of money on works of art. However along with this market, there are also some pieces of art that have not sold at all. One glaring example is the sale of Basquiats which were reported to sell at the $5 million range in the 1988 time period. As people expected the prices to go up several notches to touch the $10 million mark, many were surprised when the pieces did not sell over the last few years. While some say that this indicates a fall of economy in the London art market, many others state that this issue is just a matter of quality, which was presented through signature elements in the earlier Basquiats, but absent now. So discerning customers are not overspending but are choosing to spend their money on certain micro markets, which are present a nd growing and taking the economy to a new high. Tourism booster Tourism is an important economy generator in London accounting for one tenth of the city's economy. The various art galleries of London serve as a major attraction to tourists and international visitors who come from diverse parts of the world for the various art fairs. These tourists not only enhance the economy by spending on pieces of art in London, they do much more. They provide the much needed boost to local economies through their spending during their stay, which is approximately 2.3 million locally. A study conducted in 2005 by MEW Research at the National Gallery, on their 2004-2005 exhibition on Raphael: From Ubrino to Rome, indicated similar results. The exhibition attracted 47% people from UK and 17% tourists from abroad. Studies also revealed that 47% tourists came specifically for the exhibition.

History ( global civilization ) Term Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 1

History ( global civilization ) - Term Paper Example This was the reason for the east and native rebellions for their trade increases. The main reason for the partition of Africa was that in 1882, Britain took it over and in 1890’s it took the biggest share of the east - central Africa, Sudan and Rhodesias. In 1898, there were conflicts with France and Germany. 1n 1900, Europeans led only Ethiopia and Liberia leaving the rest of Africa. The European partitioners thought of Africa as a mirage and cared more about vision rather than reality. In the view of Africans it was unification what Europeans thought as partition. Soon after the partition of Africa, the Europeans started initiating colonization and political units within their societies with diversified history and cultural background. By the end of 19th Century, the Europeans divided the major part of Africa amongst themselves. Finally, the African nationalists took over the artificial units made by Europeans who dominated and exploited Africa (Koponen, pp.

Comparative Essay on Structure Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1750 words

Comparative on Structure - Essay Example â€Å"Master Harold and the Boys† by Athol Fugard revolves around three characters: Hally (or Master Harold), and his two African servants Sam and Willie. The play begins in a scene where it is raining in the afternoon, when Sam and Willie practice ballroom steps to prepare for an upcoming major competition. Hally, or Master Harold, arrives on the scene. He is back from his school. It would seem that despite Sam’s role as servant, between themselves, Hally and Sam stand more or less as equals, at least intellectually. Willie, on the other hand, who is less sophisticated than Sam, knows his place, and thus, Willie makes it a point to always call Hally as â€Å"Master Harold†. In this first part, we are first introduced to the characters and the setting, as the plot continues, we are gradually introduced to the dilemmas surrounding the lives of the characters. Sam and Hally talk about schoolwork, then proceed to discussing an intellectual topic on â€Å"The Man of Magnitude†. Then the scene turns to flashbacks when the three friends used to live in a boarding house. The timing of using the flashback is appropriate; it shows how structure can be used as an advantage. Hally remembers the time when Sam made a kite for him. Despite the fact that the kite was made from junk materials, Hally holds this memory dearly and feels warm at his reminiscing of the scene. Sam made the kite for him to cheer him up from being down because of his father’s drinking habits. To Hally, the flying of the kite would probably represent hope, which he so much needed in an environment that was centered on abuse, alcoholism, and racism. They then talk about Hally’s 500-word English composition. After this comes the scene that is the climax of feelings, on the ballroom dance floor, which is a â€Å"world without collisions†, that is actual ly a metaphor for life. Unfortunately, after this great climax comes the

Bergers Disease: IgA Nephropathy

Bergers Disease: IgA Nephropathy Sarah A. Poorman IgA nephropathy, or Bergers disease, is one of the most prevalent, primary, and chronic glomerular disease and an imperative cause of renal failure (Mayo Clinic, 2017). IgAN is one of the most common renal diseases present in todays world. It can occur at any age, perceiving first evidence of renal disease when people are in their teens to late 30s (Wyatt and Julian, 2013). It is twice more likely to appear in men than women, being the most common amongst Asian and Caucasian populations (Wyatt and Julian, 2013). Early stages of Bergers Disease may not have symptoms. It can be silent for years, sometimes even decades before a single symptom shows. The most common symptom witnessed is hematuria, or bloody urine (NIDDK, 2015). This is a definite sign of a damaged glomeruli. Usually, the tint of urine will become a hue of pink or resemble the color of tea or cola (National Kidney Foundation, 2016). Another common symptom to arise is albuminuria. This is when urine contains an overabundance or albumin. Albumin is a protein, typically found in the blood, which maintains fluid balance throughout the human body (Nephcure, 2016). Blood loses its capacity to absorb fluid from the body once albumin leaks into the urine. Due to the lost blood supply, low blood albumin levels will occur. Too much fluid will let to edema, or swelling, of various body parts. The most common body parts to experience edema are the legs, feet, and ankles, leaving the face and hands to be the least commonly affected (NIDDK, 2015). Foamy urine is a signal of albuminuria. The least common symptoms associated with IgAN are high blood pressure and high cholesterol levels (NIDDK, 2015). Glomerulus is a system of capillaries situated at the beginning of a nephron in the kidney (Wyatt and Julian, 2013). Its focal objective is to assist as the first phase of the filtration process of the blood, which is carried out by the nephron in the creation of urine (Mayo Clinic, 2017). IgA nephropathy, or IgAN, is considered an autoimmune disease that affects the glomeruli of the kidneys. Glomeruli are tiny filtering units where the blood is cleared. As the IgA deposits build up in the glomeruli, it causes the kidneys to leak blood and protein into the urine. Human IgA antibodies have two subclasses, IgA1 and IgA2, while IgA1 constitutes 85% of the total IgA in the circulation, starting in the bone marrow (Wyatt and Julian, 2013). Predominantly, these deposits consist of IgA, but they can also exhibit IgG and IgM antibodies by themselves or combined. As the IgA deposits build up in the glomeruli, it causes the kidneys to leak blood and protein into the urine. IgA in the glomerular deposits are exclusively of the IgA1 subclass and are in the polymeric form (Wyatt and Julian, 2013). IgA1 exhibits galactose deficiency in the O-linked glycans in the hinge region of the heavy chain (Suzuki et al, 2011). Going all the way back to basic chemistry, galactose, or Gal, is a monosaccharide sugar that is composed of the same element as glucose, but has a different arrangement of atoms (Maillard et al, 2015). The Fc receptor will blind the GD-IgA1 to create immune complexes that leads to the complement activation. The transcription of IgG and IgM trigger the pathways of complement activation, containing immune complexes (Maillard et al, 2015). Eventually, over time, the massive discharge of ctyokines, components of the ext racellular matrix, and oxidants that disrupt the function of the glomerular basement membrane will induce apoptosis (the product of TGF-B and IL-6) and glomerular scarring (Maillard et al, 2015). This creates the destruction of the kidneys which leads to the major development of end-stage renal disease. To put it simply, T cell-dependent activation of B Cells is initiated by APCs, which processes the antigen, and creates peptides to present, in MHC 11, to CD4+ T cells. This results in the production of T Helper cells. With the interaction of B and T cells, the expression of CD40L, a protein apart of the TNF (tumor necrosis factor) family, begins. Isotype switching of naà ¯ve B cells towards IgA1 and IgA2 producing plasma cells takes place. The B cells carry the antigens to the surface of the cell by Ig expression. They present this to MHC II, which aids in the recruitment of T cells. With the expression of CD40L and cytokines and signals from APCs will begin the regulation of production for IgA the IgA immunoglobulin will typically bind oneself to an antigen or infection found in the body. This will result in the activation of an immune response, which will find a way to rid the body of the infection. People with IgAN have an augmented blood result of IgA that signifies less galactose than what is considered normal. This galactose-deficient IgA, or GD-IgA1, in the blood, is recognized as foreign by the other antibodies circulating the blood. But, when an individual has IgAN, a flawed arrangement of IgA antibodies attach their selves to another IgA antibody, as an alternative of an infection or antigen, resulting in the creation of immune complexes. These immune complexes turn out to be jammed in the kidneys glomeruli, causing damage to the filters. Inflammation takes place, which causes blood and proteins to leak out of the kidneys and into the urine. Eventually, this will lead to end-stage renal disease (ESRD) and total kidney failure, resulting in death or the dire need of a kidney transplantation. Currently, there is no known cure for IgA nephropathy, with no ultimate way of knowing what path the ailment will take. Once the kidneys are scarred, they cannot be repaired. Therefore, the vital goal of IgA nephropathy treatment is to inhibit or delay the inevitable, end-stage renal disease. Some people experience complete remission and others live normal lives with low-grade blood or protein in their urine. Treatment with numerous of medications can slow the progress of the disease and help manage symptoms such as high blood pressure, protein in the urine, and swelling. Some of the medications that are currently being used to treat IgAN are as follows: 1) Angiotensin-converting enzyme (ACE) inhibitors or angiotensin receptor blockers (ARBs) which lowers blood pressure and reduces the amount of albumin in the urine. 2) Omega 3 Fatty acids, which aid in the reduction of inflammation throughout the body, in this case the glomeruli, leaving no harmful side effects. 3) Immunosuppressants such as corticosteroids medication (prednisone) will suppress the immune system response, allowing to protect kidney function. However, these can cause serious side effects such as high blood pressure and high blood sugar. 4) Statin therapy are cholesterol lowering medications that are known to help slow the damage to the kidneys. 5) Mycophenolate mofetil, or CellCept, has been successfully used in some pati ents who have had persistent protein in the urine, however, most studies so far have failed to show the benefit for using this medication. There are no sources in the current document.   Ã‚  

Safety in Global Workplace :: essays research papers fc

Introduction Advierta este papel entrarà ¡ en llamas en diez segundos ! If you can read Spanish you might have already dropped this paper. However, if you cannot, let me translate the first line for you. It reads†¦Ã¢â‚¬ Caution, this paper will burst into flames in ten seconds!† Imagine yourself as a foreigner working in a country without being able to speak or read the language. Many foreign workers are too embarrassed or afraid of termination to admit that they do not understand instructions or safety procedures. A recent Census Bureau report indicates the number of United States residents for whom English is a foreign language is nearly 32 million 1. Mexican immigrants make up the largest minority group in our country today and many of these individuals have poor English language skills or none at all. They come to this country for an opportunity to work and make a better life. In order for these employees and their fellow workers to be protected properly, a way must be found to c ommunicate safety information to them. We must familiarize ourselves with the way in which people communicate and learn and adapt our techniques to get the message across most efficiently. A 16 year old Mexican immigrant working for a construction subcontractor from Texas who had been contracted by a framing contractor in Oklahoma, who in turn was working for a general construction contractor in Alabama, fell to his death from a roof at the construction site in Alabama. The Texas based contractor had a safety plan but it was written only in English. The general contractor in Alabama had a safety plan for its employees but it did not make any provision for subcontractors. Evidence indicated that the crew understood little or no English. Evidence gathered during OSHA interviews of the crewmembers, indicated that the crew had no knowledge of the safety plan 2. There were many mistakes made in this scenario and we must be mindful of this type of situation due to the changing composition of the modern workplace. As managers, we will face employees with various cultural and language backgrounds and these employees must be a vital and productive part of the overall scheme. Th e general contractor in this case should have incorporated any subcontracted employees in its safety plan. In so doing, these contingencies are provided for before they occur and may limit the company’s liability.

Global Climate Change and Climate Protection

From September 6 to 10, 1997, the International Council for Local Environmental Initiatives (ICLEI) held a Cities for Climate Protection (CCP) Campaign – U.S. workshop in Atlanta, sponsored by the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, The City of Atlanta, The Climate Institute, and The Turner Foundation. ICLEI is the international environmental agency for local governments. It believes from concrete experience that local actions can have a global impact. ICLEI was established in 1990 through a partnership of the United Nations Environment Programme, the International Union of Local Authorities (IULA), and the Center for Innovative Diplomacy. ICLEI's World Secretariat is in Toronto. ICLEI also has offices in Freiburg, Tokyo, Harare, Santiago, and Berkeley. ICLEI's purpose and mission are to: 1) serve as an international clearinghouse on sustainable development and environmental protection policies, programs, and techniques being implemented at the local level by local institutions; 2) initiate joint projects or campaigns among groups of local governments to research and develop new approaches to address pressing environmental and development problems; 3) organize training programs and publish reports and technical manuals on state of the art environmental management practices; and 4) serve as an advocate for local government before national and international governments, agencies, and organizations to increase their understanding and support of local environmental protection and sustainable development activities. By ICLEI's 10th anniversary in the year 2000, ICLEI aims to establish a global system to achieve, measure, and report on tangible improvements in the global environment through the cumulative local performance improvements of ICLEI's member municipalities. ICLEI members include more than 265 local governments of all sizes from around the world from 50 countries, all of whom share a common purpose: to take a leadership role in identifying and implementing innovative environmental management practices at the local level. ICLEI's CCP campaign started in 1990 and consists of about 200 cities from Abu Dhabi to West Hollywood. The cities that sign on to the CCP campaign commit to: 1) estimate their 1990 carbon dioxide (CO2) equivalent (CO2e) emissions, 2) develop a CCP plan to reduce their CO2e emissions by 20 percent of their 1990 emissions by the year 2020, 3) demonstrate progress towards reducing their greenhouse gas emissions, and 4) update and implement their plan. Others are becoming involved in the CCP campaign. On September 19, 1997, Ted Turner of Turner Communications announced he would contribute $1,000,000,000 to the United Nations to address the issue of global climate change. On October 6, 1997, President Clinton held a White House Summit on Global Warming to help develop U.S. policy for the planning meetings in Bonn on October 20, 1997, and for the International Meeting on Global Climate Change to be held in Kyoto in December, 1997. Climate change is now recognized as a serious global issue by thousands of environmental professionals, atmospheric scientists, government officials, medical doctors, and health and property insurance companies. Climate change is serious because its adverse human health and physical effects, if unabated, will have vast and undesirable social, economic and political impacts. Ross Gelspan, prize-winning author of The Heat Is On: The High Stakes Battle Over Earth's Threatened Climate (1997. Addison-Wesley Publishing Co., New York) was the featured dinner speaker at the CCP workshop. Cause and Effects of Industrialized Climate Change Because of industrialization, the earth's surface and atmosphere is heating up to our peril as a species. The key issues in global climate change are expanding industrialization which burns carbon fuels in power plants and internal combustion vehicle engines to generate greenhouse gases beyond the capacity of the oceans and the biosphere to absorb the excess gases. These excess gases capture heat from the sun and cause global warming, increase air pollution, induce glacial and iceberg melting, sea level rising, unstable and more extreme and long-lived weather conditions, and shifting, prolonging and intensifying floods, droughts, hurricanes and El Nià ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½o episodes. These effects lead to increases in respiratory diseases, habitat alterations, destruction of forests and wetlands, agricultural shifts, coastal erosion and flooding, societal dislocations and unrest, and perhaps, the demise of democracy as governments become more authoritarian to combat the emergencies induced by climate change. What lies ahead if the developed world cannot reduce its greenhouse gas emissions and the developing world seeks to industrialize and increase its greenhouse gas emissions? Greenhouse Gases, Their Properties, Sources and Emission Rates The major greenhouse gases are carbon dioxide (CO2), methane (CH4), nitrous oxide (N2O), halocarbon and related compounds (fluorocarbons CFC-11, CFC-12, CFC-113; hydrocholorofluorocarbons HCFC-22; hydrofluorocarbons HFCs; perfluorocarbons PFCs; and sulfur hexafluoride SF6), and the criteria pollutants — carbon monoxide (CO), nitrogen oxides (NOx), and non-CH4 volatile organic compounds (NMVOCs) [U.S. Department of Energy, Energy Information Administration (EIA). October 1997. Emissions of Greenhouse Gases in the United States 1996 DOE/EIADOE/EIA-0573 (96). Office of Integrated Analysis and Forecasting, Department of Energy, Washington, District of Columbia or http://www.eia.doe.gov/oiaf/1605/frntend.html]. CO2 has a carbon equivalency of 0.273, CH4 has a higher carbon equivalency of 5.73, and N2O has an even higher carbon equivalency of 83.2. This means that CH4 has about 21 times the warming effect of CO2 and N2O has about 305 times the warming effect of CO2. SF6 has a very h igh global warming potential (GWP) of 23,900 times the effects of CO2. The currently estimated 1996 U.S. total greenhouse gas emissions are about 1,753 metric tons of carbon or carbon equivalent, or an increase of 8.3 percent over 1990 (EIA 1997). About 98.5 percent of U.S. human-made or anthropogenic CO2 emissions are caused by the combustion of fossil fuels to provide energy; U.S. anthropogenic CH4 emissions are due primarily to production and transportation of coal, natural gas and oil; anaerobic decomposition of municipal waste in landfills and raising livestock. N2O emissions are primarily from agricultural soils associated with fertilizer use, industrial process emissions, and emissions from fossil fuel combustion. Carbon dioxide. CO2 emissions are by far the largest percentage of greenhouse gas. Caused primarily by the combustion of fossil fuels to provide energy from energy plants and internal combustion engines, anthropogenic CO2 emissions are also produced by forest, agricultural, and other fires. At 1,496 metric tons of carbon or carbon equivalent, about 85.3 percent of the currently estimated 1996 U.S. greenhouse gas emissions are as CO2, based on GWP, or an increase of 8.8 percent over 1990 (EIA 1997). Methane. CH4 emissions are dwarfed by CO2 emissions (a ratio of 1 ton of CH4 for every 175 tons of CO2). Because the heat-trapping capacity of CH4 is about 21 times that of CO2, the overall effect of CH4 on global climate is significant. There is, however, substantial uncertainty in estimates of emissions from most U.S. CH4 sources, ranging from 25 percent to as high as several hundred percent. CH4 emission trends from each source tend to be more reliable than their overall estimated magnitude. At 177 metric tons of carbon or carbon equivalent, about 10.0 percent of the currently estimated 1996 U.S. greenhouse gas emissions are as CH4, based on GWP, or a decrease of 2.2 percent over 1990. Nitrous oxide. Compared to CO2 or CH4, N2O is released in small quantities from anthropogenic sources; however, N2O's 100 – year global warming potential (GWP) of 305 makes it a significant contributor to atmospheric warming. Although there are many known natural and anthropogenic sources, N2O emissions have been difficult to quantify on a global scale because it has been one of the least-studied greenhouse gases. The largest source of anthropogenic N2O emissions is energy use, which includes mobile source combustion from passenger cars, buses, motorcycles, and trucks, and stationary source combustion from residential, industrial, and electric utility energy use. The second-largest source of N2O emissions is agriculture, primarily fertilizer application and a small amount released from the burning of crop residues. However, there is substantial uncertainty and debate regarding the emissions implications of use of N-based fertilizers. Models used for estimation are based on limited sources of experimental data. Another important source of N2O emissions is industrial production of adipic acid and nitric acid. At 38 metric tons of carbon or carbon equivalent, about 2.2 percent of the currently estimated 1996 U.S. greenhouse gas emissions are as N2O, based on GWP, or no net change over 1990. Halocarbon and Related Compounds. CFCs, HCFCs, HFCs, PFCs and other compounds that act as greenhouse gases are emitted from their use as refrigerants in cooling equipment, as solvents, or as blowing agents, or from fugitive emissions from industrial processes; these halocarbon compounds are being phased out under pollution prevention measures because they damage the stratospheric ozone layer. The best known class of synthetic greenhouse chemicals are the CFCs, particularly CFC-12 (trade name Freon -12). CFCs have many desirable features: they are relatively simple to manufacture, inert, nontoxic, and nonflammable. Because CFCs are chemically stable, they remain in the atmosphere for hundreds or thousands of years. These synthetic molecules absorb reflected infrared radiation at wavelengths that would otherwise be largely unabsorbed, and they are potent greenhouse gases, with a direct radiative forcing effect hundreds or thousands of times greater than that of CO2. Though molecule for molecule, CFCs absorb many hundreds of times more infrared radiation than carbon dioxide, their net warming effect is reduced because of their effect on ozone. Ozone (O3), beneficial in the stratosphere for its ability to absorb harmful ultraviolet radiation, is also a potent greenhouse gas. While the direct effect of CFCs is a warming potential far greater than that of CO2, their indirect effect on ozone reduces their net radiative forcing effects by half. SF6 is used as an insulator for circuit breakers switchgear and other electrical equipment; it also occurs as a fugitive emission from certain semiconductor manufacturing processes. At 42 metric tons of carbon or carbon equivalent, about 2.4 percent of the curr ently estimated 1996 U.S. greenhouse gas emissions are as HFCs, PFCs and SF6, based on GWP, or an increase of 68 percent over 1990. Criteria Pollutants. CO, NOx, and NMVOCs are reactive gases, which usually decay quickly in the atmosphere. Most CO emissions result from incomplete oxidation during combustion of fuels used for transportation. NOx emissions are related to air-fuel mixes and combustion temperatures during the burning of fuels evenly split between transportation and stationary sources. NMVOCs are a main component in the chemical and physical atmospheric reactions that form ozone and other photochemical oxidants. About half of the NMVOC emissions come from solvent-related industrial processes and most of the remaining emissions are from combustion of transportation fuels. Climate Protection Strategies The remedial strategies all have unintended consequences. These strategies are 1) greenhouse gas source reduction (Gelspan, 1997; ICLEI, September 1997, web page at http://www.iclei.org); 2) ocean modification to absorb more greenhouse gases (Joos, F., J.L. Sarmiento and U. Siegenthaler. 1991. Estimates of the effect of Southern Ocean iron fertilization on atmospheric CO2 concentrations. Nature, Vol. 349, No. 6312, p. 772-774); and 3) forest, wetland, and agricultural practices to sequester more gaseous CO2 (Hodges, Carl N., T. Lewis Thompson, James L. Riley and Edward P. Glenn. November 1993. Reversing the Flow: Water and Nutrients from the Sea to the Land. Ambio, A Journal of the Human Environment, Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences, Vol. 22, No. 7, p. 483-496). The most likely success strategy is greenhouse gas source reduction. Greenhouse gas source reduction activities include: à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Replace greenhouse gas generating activities such as coal, petroleum, and natural gas burning power plants with non-CO2 emitting power plants like nuclear, solar, wind, wave, hydraulic, and geothermal. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Reduce the amount of paper and other carbon-rich discards that go to landfills, which generate CH4 by source reduction, reuse, recycling, and composting and/or mulching of organic discards. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Control industrial plant greenhouse gas emissions. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Prevent and control forest and agricultural fires that generate CO2. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Replace internal combustion vehicle, tools, and power sources with electrical, compressed natural gas , and hydrogen sources. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Recover greenhouse gases, such as from landfills, for reuse and treatment prior to release to the atmosphere. à ¯Ã‚ ¿Ã‚ ½ Improve the greenhouse gas sequestering mechanisms of the vegetative cover by restoring and enhancing landscape trees, forests, wetlands, gardens, and agricultural practices. Do we have a reason to be optimistic? We have reason to be cautiously optimistic about climate protection. Human history is full of examples where we learned from our mistakes, misfortunes, or undesirable trends. The agricultural revolution of the 18th century, the discovery of bacteria in the 19th, and the invention of vaccines in the 20th are some of the examples of what humanity can achieve when challenged with a seemingly unsolvable problem. True, we must overcome several hurdles, the resistance of political and profit-centered structures which have short-term benefits in an economy based on carbon fuels. But these barriers can be overcome in the 21st century through education and promotion, successful cases, and the inherently superior economics of a sustainable and renewable energy and resource based society. We will need political leadership at all levels to make it happen.

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